[1971]
"In 1971, at the age of 65, Mrs. [Esther] Peterson started another career, this time in business as vice president for consumer affairs at Giant Food Inc., the largest supermarket chain in the Washington-Baltimore area.
Odonna Mathews, who worked with Mrs. Peterson as a University of Maryland undergraduate intern and now holds Mrs. Peterson's old position at Giant, said: ''Her friends in consumer activism asked, 'How can you work for a business and represent the consumer?' She showed it could be done.''
At Giant, Ms. Mathews said, she worked with Mrs. Peterson on the grade labeling of food. ''She found it confusing,'' Ms. Mathews said. ''She asked, 'What's the difference between U.S. Fancy No. 1 and Extra Fancy?' ''
Ms. Mathews said Mrs. Peterson persuaded the supermarket to disclose what seafood had been previously frozen, a widespread practice now but one not in use before then.
''She got Giant to try nutritional labeling on its private products before it was required by Federal law, comparing calories and proteins,'' Ms. Mathews said. ''She got Giant to use open dating -- putting a date by which products like yogurt or milk must be sold.''
Before then, the stores used letter and number combinations to express the dates, a code that was not clear to buyers."
---"Ester Peterson Dies at 91; Worked to Help Consumers,",
Irvin Molotsky, New York Times, December 22, 1997 (p. B7)
"A bill requiring open dating has 'better prospects' than in the two previous legislative sessions when he introduced similar bills, according to State Sen. Anthony C. Beilenson (D-Los Angeles),
and the bill is winning support from a new group--consumers...In previous years his open dating bills were killed in the Agricultural Committee...Mrs. Shirley Doldinger, president of
the Assn. of California Consumers for Los Angeles and Orange Counties, said her association is supporting the bill. But in her opinion, voluntary open dating by the food industry is
preferable. 'I can't see why industry will advertise that their products are fresh and high quality without going the full route and giving the shopper the complete information
on the label...If industry denies the consumer this information the consumer becomes suspicious.'...Following a shopping tour of five markets to check date information,
Mrs. Goldinger found some reason to distrust dating practices. First, she found several packages long past the date still in market refrigerators. ...'Of course we don't know for for sure if these are
pull dates or pack dates."...The California Rural Legal Assistance lawyers filed a suit in San Francisco last December asking for a court order to require certain
dairy companies to open date their produtcs...'Open dating has been the practice in Scandinavia for years without much trouble...We've talked with Richard Ralphs after Ralphs
markets began to open date their products, and he said they had no problem, that buyers just had to be more careful about ordering milk. Valley Gold (a dairy company)
has been calendar dating since 1956."
---"Consumer Backing Seen for Dairy Products Dating Bill," Jeanne Voltz, Los Angeles Times, March 4, 1971 (p. H6)
[1979]
"If the only milk left on the supermarket shelf has today's date on it, then does that mean the milk will spoil by tomorrow? And why does the dates on dry cereal follwo the
phrase, 'best if used by' but there is no such phrase, only a date, on cottage cheese? Well simply becasue dates on different food products mean different things. The
'Jan. 20, 1979' stamped on a carton of milk does not indicate the same thing as thtaa date on a package of yeast or a box of cereal. But in each case, the aim of the
open-dating is to reveal the freshness of the product. Who determines the date? Not the federal government, as many shoppers assume, but usually the manufacturer, retailer, or
an association of producers for a specific product. Open-dating is voluntary under federal law, and only meat, poultry, and milk come under any type of ruling. There area
four types of open-dating in common use: the pull date, quality assurance date, pack date, and expiration date. Having all these dates seems to have only added to consuers'
confusion since the open-dating system began. In fact, the recent food labeling hearings by the federal Food and Drug dwelled on open-dating to a deree. As one FDA
spokesman said, 'the dates mean so many different things, they end up not meaning a thing.'...Pull date--this indicates the last recommended day for sale in a retail outlet. This date
is set by the manufacturer or retailer to allow for sufficient home storage or use. This date is most often found on dairy products (milk, cottage cheese...and fresh meat)...
Deli foods such as lunchmeats and sausage may also come with dating...'Fresh products such as pork sausage hae a 'sell by' date. After that the retailer must remove it from the
shelf.' Quality assurance daate--Sometimes called 'best if used by' date. This indicates the last day at which that food item is considered at peak quality. Dry cereals, for
example, are labeled as such...Expiration date--Indicaataes the last date on which the product should be used for assured quality...Pack date--Indicates the day on which the food
was processed or packaged. This simply is another indicataion of how fresh the merchandise is and can be found mostly on canned foods...As with all dates, they are merel
freshness indicators. Following storage guidelines for individual food times is the best way to insure freshness."
---"Because it's dated is it also fresh?" Judy Hevrdejs, Chicago Tribune, January 18, 1979 (p. C4)
"While the simple shelf-life dating of food may increase consumer confidence in the quality of the product, it may have little bearing on the food's safety. This conclusion was
one of the major findings of the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment in a report made public yesterday following an investigation into shelf-life dating. The
investigation sought to test the widespread belief that replacing the food industry's present system of largely indecipherable coded dates with clearly understandable
open dates on food packages would help increase consumer confidence in food freshness, and encourage better handling of food products by retailers. 'There is little
evidence to support or to negate the contention that there is a direct relationship between open shelf-life dating and the actual freshness of food products when they
are sold,'...Open shelf-life dating involves putting dates on food packages to tell retailers and consumers when the contents should best be sold or eaten to insure
freshness, The dates may say when the product was packaged, when it should be sold and the date that it should be discarded if uneaten. Some form of open dating, generally
involving dairy products, now is in effect in 21 states and the District of Columbia. Some food processors also have put open dates on selected food products, including numerical
or color codes to aid in inventory control. But the report said there was considerable confusion because of the lack of a uniform dating system. The present systems vary
widely as to the foods to be dated, the dates to be used and their meaning...The report which was preapared at the request of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and
Transportation, said 'There are no nationwide statistics on the amount of food sold that is not fresh'...According to the report, New York is one of those states that have
no dating system at all. New Jersey requires the open dating of dairy productcs and Connecticut orders the open dating of milk. As to other overall findings, the report
found that: Pressure for open dating stems from public perceptions that this would insure food freshness, which may not be abolutely correct. Open dating fails to take into
account the influence of such environmental factors as temperature, humidity and light and is unlikely to 'in the near furture.'...The costs of open dating are small and unclear 'but
nonetheless may add from 1 to 1 cent to the costs of each packaged food.'"
---"Report to Congress Doubts Value of Shelf-Life Dating," Richard D. Lyons, New York Times, August 29, 1979 (p. C8)
[1981]
"Although freshness dates are used by many shoppers when buying food, they actually tell
very little about a product's shelf life, says Lloyd Witter, food science professor at the
University of Illinois. Shelf life varies with the age and type of ingredients used, the process,
the package, the environmental conditions during distribution and storage as well as the
consumer's preference as to how fresh is "fresh." The food processor has control over those
conditions until the packages are shipped from the plant or warehouse. After that, the
responsibility shifts to the wholesaler, retailer and the consumer, Witter says. Many food
packages already indicate in code the date they were processed to help supermarket personnel
rotate stock and to identify defective merchandise in the event of a product recall. Witter says
the issue of food dating has been debated for 30 years. Consumers have urged that actual dates
be used to indicate a product's freshness. The types of dating systems that have been proposed
are the pack date, sell-by date or best-if-used by date. "It's nice to know how long a food
product will last but this is difficult to determine," Witter says. For this reason he thinks the
best dating system would be the "best-if-used-by" date. This indicates that the food is still
safe although possibly of lower quality after that time. According to Witter, the use-by date
incorrectly implies that the product is of high quality until that date regardless of any storage
problems and that it becomes unpalatable or dangerous after that date.The pack date tells
when food was packed and leaves it up to the consumer to decide how long after that date the
food is still of high quality. This is the coded date most often used for stock rotation. Many
states now require a sell-by date, also called the pull date, on certain foods. After this date, the
store manager must remove the package from his regular retail shelves and either dispose of it
or sell it at a reduced price in a segregated part of the store. Food dating can be misleading and
cause unnecessary problems in some cases, Witter says. Dating information depends on
whether the food is perishable, semi- perishable or shelf stable, Witter says. Milk, eggs and
fish are classified as perishable, and most states limit the length of time they may remain on
shelves or in coolers. Requirements vary among states, however, and the actual temperature in
a given cooler or the length of time the food is left outside the cooler will determine whether
the product actually retains its high quality for the stated time. Similar considerations also
apply to semiperishable foods such as cheese, cured meats, some pickled foods and snack
foods. Even shelf stable food, such as canned goods, dried foods and breakfast cereals, can
lose their quality if exposed to high temperatures and humidity, especially if their protective
packaging is damaged."
---"Freshness Dates Don't Tell Much," Boston Globe, April 15, 1981 (p. 1)
[1985]
"Once upon a time, it was easy to get fresh bread. You could just walk to the local bakery and
choose a new-baked, fragrant loaf. Today, if you shop in a large market, you probably do a lot
more reading than sniffing to judge the freshness of bread--and many other foods as well.
Along with the ingredients list, nutrition labeling and other product information, you may find
any of six kinds of dates on food packages. Open dating, as this is called, got started in the
1970s as part of the consumers' "right to know" movement. Designed to inform shoppers of
product shelf life and to guide retailers in stock rotation, it can be confusing. Some state and
local statutes may require dating of perishable items such as eggs, milk and prepared
sandwiches, but this country has no federal regulations and no uniform dating system. The
hodgepodge of codes can befuddle any shopper. Open dating is not the only kind of
numbering system manufacturers may employ. It differs from code dating, a series of numbers
and/or letters used for inventory control. Nor is it the same as the Universal Product Code, the
small block of parallel lines and numbers found on practically all labels. Instead, open dating
is a specific date either printed, stamped or embossed on a product. Whether on the tops or
bottoms of cans, on bottle caps or on the side panels of boxes, open dating is there to help
shoppers select products at the store and keep tabs on them at home. The pack date--the day
the food was manufactured or processed--tells how old the food is when you buy it. It is
generally used on items with a long shelf life: canned goods, cake mixes and oils. Pack-date
information does not tell you how long a product is good or safe to eat, but it is helpful for
recalls. By contrast, the pull date or "sell by" date is the last day a retailer should sell a product
as fresh. Perishable foods--dairy products, meats, fish, bakery goods and cold cuts--may be
stamped with a pull date. It allows time for home storage, so that an item remains fine beyond
that date. How long it can be stored at home depends to some extent on the food in question.
Another category, the "best-if-used-by" date, may appear on cereals, aseptic packages of fruit
and vegetable juices, snack foods, peanut butter, salad dressings and cookies. Items consumed
after this date may represent no health risk, but manufacturers will no longer guarantee their
quality. Occasionally, perishable goods like soft cheeses may be stamped with a "best-if-purchased-by" date, which is then synonymous with the pull or "sell by" date. Fresh meat
packed at the store may have a "display date" to indicate the day it went on the food-store
shelf. Expiration dates may appear on a few items like baby formula and yeast as the last date
the item should be eaten or used. Although it is easy to agree that we ought to have shelf-life
dating for foods, designing a simplified and more consistent system is a major hurdle. Shelf
life depends on the initial quality of the food and its subsequent handling and storage. Most
foods need to be protected from heat, light and excess moisture. In general, the higher the
temperature during storage, the greater loss of food quality. Predictions of shelf life, then, are
relative estimates that assume a reasonable amount of care in food handling. Even the freshest
of poultry can quickly deteriorate if left for long at a warm temperature. A pack date on
wrapped chicken can help indicate freshness, but such information is valuable only if
appropriate food practices are followed, both in the supermarket and at home. Different kinds
of foods lend themselves to different types of open dating. Some, like salt and sugar, have
indefinite shelf lives and need no dating. They are not readily susceptible to microbial or
chemical degradation if kept dry. Other foods are difficult to date because shelf life may
depend greatly on how the product is stored. A "sell by" date on frozen fruits and vegetables
would be impractical because most degradation occurs after they leave the supermarket
freezer. The most desirable label for these foods is probably a "best-if-used-by" date that
includes storage and handling instructions. In short, the dates on foods mean different things
from one item to another, and it can be hard to decipher these numerous designations. Until a
better system is invented, one way to help maintain peak quality at the table is to try to buy
only as much as you are likely to use up well within the limits of freshness dating. The large
economy size that lasts far beyond its shelf life is hardly a bargain."
---"Grocery Shoppers Need Interpreter for Shelf-Life Dates," Dr. Jean Mayer and Jeanne Goldberg, R D, Chicago Tribune,
August 22, 1985 (p. 13C)
[1992]
"Recent concern over a "PrimeTime Live" segment and other television investigations of
some supermarkets has raised questions about the meaning of dates on food packages. "Sell-by," "use-by," "expiration" and "pack" are references to dates a consumer might find on
supermarket products. And, then again, might not find. According to the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, if a product is so stamped, here's what the designations mean:
- Sell-by date is the last day the product should be sold.
- Use-by date is the last top-eating-quality day.
- Expiration date is the last day the food should be eaten or used.
- Pack date is the date that lets the consumer know when the product was processed.
But the two main regulatory food agencies-the Department of Agriculture and the Food and
Drug Administration-have no ruling on mandatory dating of food packages, leaving it up to
the manufacturer and packager whether to advise consumers on the window of use for their
product."
---"What dates on food products really mean," Beverly Bundy, Chicago Tribune, December 3, 1992 (p. 8)
[2014]
"Except for infant formula and some baby food (see below), product dating is not required by
Federal regulations. However, if a calendar date is used, it must express both the month and
day of the month (and the year, in the case of shelf-stable and frozen products). If a calendar
date is shown, immediately adjacent to the date must be a phrase explaining the meaning of
that date such as "sell by" or "use before." There is no uniform or universally accepted system
used for food dating in the United States. Although dating of some foods is required by more
than 20 states, there are areas of the country where much of the food supply has some type of
open date and other areas where almost no food is dated."
---
Food Product Dating/Food Safety Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Industrial-age American health advocates focused on the evils of adulterated foods and overeating. Several incorporate a fitness component. The twelve books featured below offer thoughtful starting points for exploring the range of ideas espoused in the USA in recent times. What do all of these authors/books have in common? A serious concern for improving the human condition and conviction his/her solution is the best plan. If you are interested in recipes from any of these period/popular books we are happy to share.
[1892]
Science in the Kitchen/Ella
Eaton Kellogg
...Advocating high fiber and nut proteins, this cookbook and its ideas were avante-guarde in their day. Primary focus was
consuming healthy (non-aduterated) foods. Appendix (p. 474-484) is copied from the Battle Creek Sanitarium Diet
List, offering calories per ounce broken down by proteids, fats, and carbohydrates for dozens of common food items.
[1904] Uncooked Foods & How to Use Them/Mrs. & Mrs. Eugene Christian
...Raw foodist movement proposed foods, when grown to maturity, were ready for use. "They are perfect, they are not raw, they are
done; and when they are cooked they are undone." (p. 35-36). Introductory chapters "As a Remedy," "Emancipation of Women,"
"Selection of Foods," and "Feeding Children" offer critical glimpses motivating this particular diet. This book advocates eating raw meat and raw eggs. It advocates cereal products for
fiber; it also offers a recipe for "Unfired Bread" (p. 165) and "Unleavenend Gems" instructing the cook to "bake quickly."
(p. 165-166).
[1911] The Laurel Health Cookery/Evora Bucknum Perkins
...This vegetarian cookbook was published "For the Preparation of Non-Flesh Foods in Palatable and Attractive Ways." In this book
"True Meats" are nuts (peanuts, pine nuts, almonds), cocoanut milk, lentils/beans, and eggs. Trumese and Nutmese dishes are composed with commercially
prepared ground nut products. There is an entire chapter devoted to mushrooms which would be perfectly acceptable in
today's restaurants, vegetarian or not. Egg-free dishes are also offered for parochial vegetarians. Coffee, tea & hot chocolate are classed as unhealthy.
Suggested beverages are fruit nectars, lemonades, cranberry juice and bran tea.
[1915] The Nature Cure Cook Book and ABC of Natural Dietetics/Mrs. Anna Lindlahr and Henry Lindlahr, M.D.
...Vegetarian cook book based on the dietetics originated at the German School of Nature Cure. This book begins by dismissing
contemporary competing vegetarian cookbooks as uninformed. Recipes in this book are annotated to show their food elements
(St. starches; S. sugar; F. fat; P. proteids, M. minerals). The authors recommend uncooked foods: "Nature did not create man with a
cookstove by his side." (p. 11) but does not prohibit cooking: "Peppers a la Creole" are baked for a half hour (p. 178).
[1919] Diabetic Cookery: Recipes and Menus/Rebecca W. Oppenheimer
...Author Oppenheimer's preface tells her readers she is a diabetic who has sampled treatments at Carlsbad and Neuenahr.
She notes..."Little has been done for the general public in this country in preparing special recipes for the diabetic, and in working out their food
values. Inasmuch as each person's carbohydrate tolerance is different, it is absolutely essential that the carbohydrate content
of each recipe be known; only then can it be safely used." (p. v). Ms. Oppenheimer's goal is to help caregiver/cooks
understand what diabetes is & give them everything they they need to know to compose diabetic-friendly meals. We home
cooks confronted with adjusting family meals to meet this particular challenge "get it."
[1924] Physical Culture Cook Book/Bernarr MacFadden
...This movement launched in 1899 in "a world in which many foolish and artificial conceptions of life were prevalent. These ideas were a
mixture of old superstitions and half baked-conceptions of new-born science...The catastrophe of the World War has...done much to
awaken people to a practical realization of the physical foundation of life...Health has become popular; a strong and
beautiful body has become a thing of honor and glory..." (p. iii-iv). MacFadden comments on the positive aspects of nut/fruit, raw/natural, and
vegetarian regimens. He advocates careful mastication (chewing), drinking water (hydration) and healthy cooking to
unfold natural flavor (steaming vs boiling).
[1944] Diet Does It/Gayelord Hauser
...Introducing the concept of "Super Foods," this ambitious holistic dietary text fed the timeless table of social concerns. Chapters titled
"Overcoming Faulty Elimination...The newer way to internal cleanliness," "Eat and Become Slender," "Goodbye to That Tired
Feeling: Fighting fatigue with diet," "Beauty is as Beauty Eats: Specific foods for the skin, hair, eyes, and teeth" and "Live longer,
Look Younger." This book's preface was penned in Beverly Hills, California. Makes perfect sense in context.
[1955] Raw Vegetable Juices/N.W. Walker
...Cookbook offering recipes from Alfalfa to Watercress Juice. 'How much juice can be take safely?...As a general rule one
pint daily is the least that will show any perceptible results and preferably from two to eight pints of more." (p. 11). How
to make your home juice? This book promotes electric Triturator and Hydraulic Press Home Juicers. Original
book was published in 1936, revised enlarged edition 1947.
[1961] Foods for Glamour/Jack LaLanne
...Mr. LaLanne was a body builder, fitness crusader, and popular TV fitness show host in the 1960s. This book not a
cookbook but a holistic approach to eating and fitness based on making healthy choices. To Mr. LaLanne, truly glamorous
people are healthy and vibrant. Detailed discussions of the properties of common foods (chicken, bananas, potatoes, eggs etc.)
and general notes on cooking styles are offered. The solo recipe in this book is for party popcorn balls (p. 230).
[1972] Weight Watchers Program Cookbook/Jean Nidetch
...Weight Watchers began in 1963. The original cookbook was published in 1966. Our revised edition incorporates the latest
changes. This plan's success was based on a scientific Menu Plans calculated to reduce calories
while permitting followers enjoy familiar foods. In this book, "dietetic" products are not permitted except artifical sweeteners,
carbonated beverages and imitation butter products. Baked lasagne, enchiladas, and chicken tetrazzini prepared from this
book are okay. This cook book offers two options: the new "Leveling Plan" and the "Maintenance Plan." The book's primary
purpose is to offer "legal" recipes.
[1980] Richard Simmons' Never Say Diet Book/Richard Simmons
...Popular TV fitness show host, Mr. Simmons promoted the "Live-It" food program. Best known for his never-ending high energy
level and aerobic excersizes, he advocated passionately against junk food and overeating. "How to tell if you're an overeater" and
"The Painful but Very Honest Image Test" invite readers to examine their lifestyles in simple terms. The "Live-It" program
offer 3 plans, based on the amount of weight the dieter targeted to lose. This book offers general guidelines for healthy eating
choices and a tiny handful of recipes.
[1990] The Nutri/System Flavor Set-Point Weight-Loss Cookbook/Susan S Schiffman, Ph.D. and Joan Scobey
...Nutri/System launched in 1971. Like Weight Watchers, it opened a national chain of weight-loss centers and sold commercially
prepared food. This company focused on low-calorie meal plans, behavioral and nutritional counsleing, and exercize. The Nutri/Syetem
programs coatains a 1000-calorie meal plan. The "Flavor Set-Point Theory" was based on the premise that overweight people crave intensified
flavor and varied texture. Recipes are noted
for their calories, fat content, carbs, protein, sodium, cholesterol and calcium. Menus are based on an "Exchange" system.
Fettuccini with Mushroom Stroganoff, Zucchini Parmesan, and Key Lime Pie okay. Special emphasis on exotic Asian, Middle Eastern and
Indian cuisine.
Facsimiles & reprints
Cooking dishes from original historic recipes can be very challenging. Even if you're lucky enough to have access to ancient roasting pits, colonial beehive ovens, conestoga kitchens and fireless cookers. Most old recipes were not much more than shopping lists with cursory prep notes. Step-by-step instructions were omitted because it was understood the cook already knew the basics. After the cake was baked a "hot oven" to "light brown" it was "served forth" when it was "done."
Before "standardized" measuring units, cooks used six different types of measures, each posing special challenges for today's recreating cooks. NOTE: They were not problems for the cooks back in the day, as they were familiar with the terms and measures. Baking is a relational science relying on consistent proportions and oven temperatures. It was not until the industrial revolution, when it became cheap to produce kitchenware and ovens had F. marks, that "standard" measures became popular. Promoted by heavyweight home economists (think: Fannie Farmer & Sara Tyson Rorer), they were embrace by "modern" cooks. Early 20th century cookbooks provided long lists helping cooks "translate" their old recipes into the new formulae. The same held true for oven temperatures (hot, very hot, slow, fast). Today we find remnants of the old measures in some recipes. Visual and tactile cues transcend time.
Pre-standardized food measures generally fall into these categories:
There is no single place to obtain all of the historic conversions necessary to redact (interpret & recreate) original historic receipts in your kitchen. This does not mean your task is impossible. Quite the contrary.
General guidelines for recreating historic recipes:
Topical measures
Mass-produced marshmallows were very popular in the early 20th century.
Why are some old recipes called "receipts?"
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the words "receipt" and "recipe" date in English
print to the 15th century. The original meaning of both words was medical in nature. They
derived from Latin and were used by physicians to head prescriptions. The abbreviation Rx
derives from this. Up until the 20th century it was common practice to combine both formulae
for food and medicine/home remedies in one book. "Recipe," meaning a "statement of
ingredients and procedure necessary for the making or compounding of some preparation, esp. of
a dish of cookery," dates in print to 1743.
[1968]
What did the Amana
Radarange look like & cookbook.
[1966]
Radar burgers?
We find one print reference to a commercial product trademarked "Radar Burgers." They sold for 25 cents (no package
size/weight indicated) as advertised in the Billings [Montana] Gazetter, January 13, 1966 (p. 22)
[1968]
"The convenience of the Radarange Microwave oven in your home. A new, better and quicker way to prepare food. The Radaragne is
completely new. It has never been available for use in the home. You cook with microwaves, not conventinal dry heat. The
second you open the door of the Radarange you are opening up a new, more convenient way to food preparation. It is exciting,
dramatic and allows many short cuts and time savings that you never dreamed possible. Say good-bye to the old-fashioned
metal pots and pans. You do not use them when cooking in the Radarange! You can cook food, in family portions if you want,
on dishes made from glass, palstic, yes, even paper. Imagine, now after-meal clean up of pots and pans!...In just a short time
you will be using the Radarange for most of your food preparation. It will become the center of most of your food preparation.
In fact, it will help you prepare 75-80% of the foods that you serve your family."
---Amana Radarange Microwave Cooking Guide [Amana Refrigeration:Amana IA] 1968 (p. 2)
[NOTE: This is the original cookbook accompanying the radarange. It offers dozens of pages of cooking tips along with
recipes. If are interested in additional information please let us know. Happy to scan, mail or fax.]
Who was Percy Spencer?
"Dr. Percy L. Spencer, retired senior vice president of the Raytheon Company...and a well-known inventor...held more than 130 patents,
among them the application of microwave energy to medical diathermy, high-frequency devices and electronic tubes. He developed the special tubes that made possible
the proximity fuses introduced in World War II. For this work he received the Naval Ordnance Award. Dr. Spencer was the fifth employe to joing the then infant
Raytheon Company in 1925. Perhaps his first accomplishment was to help in developing the first gaseous rectifier tube that made the radio a common household
plug-in applicance. An article in the 'most unforgettable character' series in the Reader's Digest in August, 1958, described Dr. Spencer as 'an orphan who never
graduated from grammar school, he has demonstrated that nothing is beyond the grasp of a man who wants to know what is going on, and who feels a sense of
responsibility for doing something about it.' Dr. Spencer was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree by the University of Massachusetts and by Nasson College
in Maine. He also held an honorary degree from the University of Maine. He was a fellow of the American Academy of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers."
---"Percy Spencer, Inventor, Dead...," New York Times, September 8, 1970 (p. 35)
True or false: paper cups were initially promoted for convenience by large paper manufacturers in order to boost sales.
False. Paper drinking cups were promoted by 19th century public health officials to stave off diseases festering in public drinking venues. The water was
generally fresh. The fountains were sometimes questionable. The public drinking cups were swarming hotbeds of communicable disesase.
School children regularly shared cups that were not properly sanitized between drinks. Hospitals, military messes, railroads,
hotels, soda fountains, factory cafeterias, vending machines, and picnickers quickly embraced the inexpensive sanitary disposable paper cup. In the 1920s,
Congress announced they were using paper cups in their cafeterias; confirming government committiment to resolving serious sanitation issues.
Hot-cold cups were introduced in the 1930s;
styrofoam was available to the general public after WWII. New York City's ubiquitous blue
Greek design paper coffee cups first surface in the early 1960s.
[1880]
"Patent folding drinking cups, 14 cents"
---Advertisement for E.J. Lehmann's, Chicago Daily Tribune, July 11, 1880 (p. 12)
[1891]
"The now popular on omnipresent "nickel-in-the-slot machine" has only come into practical use within the past four years...Since 1888 there have been about 4000 patents issued for these machines, which
have been classed under the head of "coin-controlled apparatus," and this class has been divided into twenty-four sub-classes. About the same number of patents have
been issued in England and a large number in Germany. Almost everything can now be obtained from these automatic clerks or, waiters. A person can drop a coin, either
a penny or a nickel, in a slot and procure a cigar, cigarette, or piece of candy, or have his boots blacked, see a horse race, game of baseball, or get a glass of soda,
lemonade, mineral water, a cup of tea, a cup of coffee..."
---"A nickel in the slot: Ancient idea modernized for practical commercial purposes," Washington Post, April 19, 1891 (p. 15)
[Vending machine history notes here.]
[1894]
"It is a very dull week in the reform business that does not witness the advent of one or more new projects...One of the latest reform movements originating with the medical profession is the individual drinking cup. The agitation began in the churches, with a discussion of the dangers incident to the using of a common chalice at communion services. Already a number of churches have adopted the plan of individual chalices, and the reform is spreading. It is taking a wider range than that of religious bodies, for doctors and many others are now opposing all promiscuously used drinking cups. Numerous medical societies are discussing the subject, and in so doing are successfully exploiting the germ theory. The Homeopathic Society of Philadelphia is especially conspicuous in this movement. At a recent meeting it adopted resolutions in the Quaker City to discontinue the use of common cups in the public schools. It has also asked the railway companies to take the public drinking cups out of their cars and out of the railway stations. The Philadelphia homeopaths have in view a sweeping change--the entire abolition of the common drinking vessel and the inauguration of individual vessels. They would have the ladles removed from public pumps and hydrants in streets, hotels, steamboats, theaters, and all other places of public resort. A necessary condition of life, or, at any rate, of comfort, under this plan would be the carrying about of a drinking vessel by every person. The drinking cup would be individualized as much as the toothbrush or packet handkerchief. One of the doctors has already suggested water-proof paper cups to be kept at schools. He says they would be so cheap that they could be destroyed as soon as used. No movement of this kind can be carried into effect at once, but if, on thorough investigation, this is deemed wise and expedient, it will be generally adopted. There will be no difficulty in providing cups at insignificant cost that can be slipped into a vest pocket. There is little room for doubt that diseases are spread by the common use of drinking vessels."
---"Individual Drinking Cups," Washington Post, November 18, 1894 (p. 4)
[1907]
"A handy folding drinking cup of waterproof paper comes in a flat, folded package that fits in a vest pocket. When opened it forms a cylindrical vessel bound with wire and having a wire handle. It holds about a cupful of cold water, milk, tea or medicines. It can be used to hold hot liquids, but can only be used once, or at most twice. A cup filled with cold water stood for eight hours without injury and was then dried, refolded, and used again several times. It is useful in traveling, in camp and in the sickroom--Women's Home Companion."
---"Paper cups," Boston Daily Globe, March 31, 1907 (p. SM1)
[1909]
"Another new step in the universal fight against disease has been made in the adoption by the bureau of charities of the individual drinking cup machine, a device which does away with the old time common drinking cup, so often a means of disease communication. The bureau purposes to install the machines in the poorer quarters of the city, where cleanliness and sanitary conditions about drinking facilities are unobtainable. The danger from the drinking cup handed from hand to hand and used by scores of persons in a single day has long been recognized by physicians and health authorities throughout the country...The individual drinking cup machine guards against these evils by presenting each drinker with a brand new white paraffin paper cup. The device is automatic and may be equipped with a coin operating adjunct if desired. In some places fountains have been established where for a cent dropped in the slot one may obtain a clean cup filled to the brim with ice cold water. The machine is made of white enamel with a bottle of water inverted in the top like an ordinary cooler. The cups are manufactured by an automatic process and are not touched by the hand until they are filled, ready for use...School-children, particularly in the poor districts of large cities, have been the chief victims of disease spread by old fashioned cups, and this has resulted in the establishment of the "bubble fountain," similar to those The Tribune recently placed on the streets of Chicago, and the introduction of individual cups. In many schools each child is supplied with a paraffin cup, and this is replaced as soon as it becomes soiled."
---"Busy Inventors Who Seek to Prolong the Lives of Careless Human Beings," Chicago Daily Tribune, May 23, 1909 (p. H6)
?
"To the Editor of The New York Times: At soda fountains little children drink from poorly rinsed glasses which a moment before--owing to the haste with which drinks are served at large soda fountains--may have been in the mouth of an infected man or woman. I would suggest the use of some sort of paper cup, such as are used on one or two railroads. These cups are quite inexpensive and can be thrown away once they are used. On open paraffine peper cup could be placed in the soda fountain holders quite easily as a glass. "Sanitas." New York, July 3, 1909."
---"Paper Soda Water Cups," New York Times, July 5, 1909 (p. 6)
[1911]
"The public drinking cup to-day goes out of existence all over this [New York City] city. To drink out of one which may not have been removed is a misdemeanor, an act for which an arrest can be made without a moment's notice. The new provision of the Board of health's Sanitary Code, which upsets custom, reads: 'The use of a common drinking cup or receptacle for the drinking of water in any public place or in any public institution, hotel, theatre, factory, public hall, or public school, or in any railroad station or ferry house in the City of New York or the furnishing of such common drinking cup or receptacle for use in such place is hereby prohibited...The same to take effect on and after the first day of October, 1911.'"
---"Unlawful to Drink from a Public Cup, New York Times, October 1, 1911 (p. 16)
"Children in a dozen schools have been taught during the week how to construct a paper drinking cup of which is in every way serviceable and which does away with danger of contagion through use of a common cup...The cup is constructed from a sheet of paper about eight inches square. A unique method of folding provide a cup that may be collapsed or extended at will. It can be used six or seven times at least, and some pupils have employed the same cup for a week. Any sort of tablet paper may be used, but it has been found that an oiled paper or a foolsoap with glass lasts longest."
---"Taking a Sanitary Sip from a Homemade Paper Cup," Chicago Daily Tribune, April 29, 1911 (p. 3) [Includes folding diagram & instructions.]
[1929]
"The order late last month by Speaker Longworth closing the lunch counter at the House cloakroom on the warning of a naval surgeon that it was unsanitary has been rescinded in compliance with the demands of members. The Speaker conferred with his advisers, medical and otherwise, and it was decided that the lunch counter might be recommissioned on condition that it comply with modern rules of sanitation. Under the old order, the cloakroom dispensary used common drinking cups in supplying coffee and sandwiches were sold unwrapped. Now coffee is served in individual paper-mache cups and all sandwiches are carefuly encased in paper wrappers."
---"House Regains Lunch Counter Under Sanitary Reform Rules," New York Times, February 6, 1929 (p. 1)
"Vortex Mfg. Co. is the largest manufacturer in the world of paper drinking cups, soda cups and sundae dishes, with output in 1928 exceeding one billion cups. Vortex products are cone-shaped...The business started in 1911 with $25,000 capital...Its success has been due to able management; the invention of automatic machinery by Mr. Cesare Barbieri, the Company's consulting engineer; patent protection on machinery, processes and products, and the increasing public use of paper cups because they are sanitary and cheap. Health officials in many states are becoming increasingly active in enforcing laws and sanitary regulations pertaining to public drinking places and soda fountains. Vortex products...are in widespread use in factories, offices, stores, soda fountains, hotels, restaurants, oil filling stations, railroads, steamships, etc."
---Display ad, New York Times, August 16, 1929 (p. 32)
[1934]
"A guest list more distinguished than usually graces a formal White House dinner was represented today at a 'hot dog" luncheon given by President Roosevelt at his
cottage, located two miles from the Summer White House...The guests, ranging from prominent ones to chauffeurs, found paper plates, paper cups and knives and
forks and filed past the tables in line."
---"President is Host at 'Hot-Dog' Feast," New York Times, September 23, 1934 (p. N1)
[1963]
The classic New York City coffee cup (blue & white Greek design) dates to the 1960s:
"They're everywhere, stacked high behind counters in diners, on the cover of the Manhattan phone book and in the hands of the homeless. Like yellow taxicabs,
they represent New York City. And unlike so many cab drivers, these omnipresent city icons project an unfailingly polite image. "We are happy to serve you" is the
phrase printed on the side of the blue paper cups. Frank Padia, a 43-year-old business owner, has never stopped to acknowledge the cups' message, their origin or
even why he drinks coffee. As he stepped out of Tom's Restaurant -- the Upper West Side diner made famous on "Seinfeld" -- he held a cup of extra-strong Greek
coffee capped with a lid. "No, no, never thought about them," he said. "I guess because they've been around so long and because you see them all over the place."
"We are happy to serve you" is in Greek letters above three steaming cups of coffee and between two pillars. There's also a Greek vase, and the blue and white colors that have made the cups instantly recognizable to New Yorkers since the Sherri Cup Company introduced the "Anthora" design more than three decades ago.
"The design has been around since 1963," said Wayne Meadowcroft, Sherri's vice president of sales and marketing. "At the time, most of the diners and delis were
Greek-owned, so the design, which was by an employee, Leslie Buck, was a natural."'
SOURCE (includes photo of classic cup design): NY Cup Company.
Styrofoam cups
[1967]
"Beer...sold in styrofoam cups."
---"Anaheim ready for baseball revenue year," Jack Boettner, Los Angeles Times, April 9, 1967 (p. OC1)
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Research conducted by Lynne
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